Archeology

The cold, dry arctic climate of Nunavut often makes it a difficult place to live. In fact, the Arctic was the last habitable region in the world to be occupied by people. However, this environment also makes Nunavut an archeologist's dream. Unlike most areas, where the remains of human occupation (sites) are quickly covered by vegetation and soil, in Nunavut they are often visible right on the surface. Also, because of the cold, dry climate, tools of antler, ivory and bone can be remarkably well preserved.

As you explore, please remember that these sites and artifacts are part of Nunavut's cultural heritage. They are fragile and irreplaceable. Nothing must be moved. Under the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement, every archeological artifact is owned jointly by the Inuit Heritage Trust (for the people of Nunavut) and by the government of Canada (for the people of Canada). It is illegal to buy, sell or remove archeological artifacts. For information about reporting undiscovered archeological sites, please see the chapter, "Adventure Travel."

Research indicates Nunavut has been occupied continuously for more than 4,000 years (small pockets of the Kivalliq Region were occupied sporadically by Indian groups beginning 8,000 years ago). Archeologists divide Nunavut's inhabitants into two distinct but physically related groups: the Paleoeskimo people from at least 4,000 to 700 years ago; and the Neoeskimo people who entered Nunavut some 1,000 years ago.

The Paleoeskimo People

The Paleoeskimos emigrated from the west (Alaska) in small groups consisting of only a few families. Archeologists separate these original migrants into two groups: Pre-Dorset (in southern Nunavut) and Independence I (in northern Nunavut).

Pre-Dorset/Independence I people probably lived year-round in skin tents. Single-walled in summer, in winter the walls were most likely doubled. A layer of heather or willow may have been placed between the skin layers and an exterior layer of snow added for extra insulation. Fires provided heat and soapstone oil lamps gave light.

These people wore skin clothing and made tools from bones, antlers, ivory, skins and rocks. They travelled mostly by foot, although they did have a few dogs and a small single-person boat similar to a qajaq (kayak). All animals except the massive bowhead whales were hunted.

Through time, the Paleoeskimo people adapted to minor fluctuations in climate, ice conditions, and resource availability. Then, around 2,700 years ago, the Nunavut climate became significantly cooler and the Paleoeskimo lifestyle underwent a period of rapid transition. The changes that occurred were so dramatic, archeologists refer to these people by a different name: the Dorset culture.

At the beginning of the Dorset period, several useful items of technology mysteriously disappeared, including the bow and arrow and the bowdrill. Dogs also disappeared.

New tools appeared, hunting techniques were modified and dwelling forms changed. Archeologists suggest that snowhouses were first built by the Dorset people, as the earliest known snow knives are found in sites from this time period. The Dorset people also had a rich artistic tradition, carving miniature artistic masterpieces from ivory and antler for ceremonial and decorative use.

Despite the lack of dogs and little evidence they used large boats, the Dorset people travelled and traded materials over long distances. Copper from the Kugluktuk area and meteoric iron from northern Greenland have been recovered from Late Dorset sites in eastern Nunavut.

The Neoeskimos

About 1,000 years ago, life again changed dramatically in Nunavut, this time when the climate grew warmer and a new group of people emigrated from northern Alaska. These people were bowhead whale hunters. They had large umiat (skin-covered boats capable of carrying several families) and qamutiit (sleds) pulled by dogteams. They could cover distances at speeds unimaginable to Dorset people. Archeologists refer to these migrants as the Thule, the first of two Neoeskimo subgroups. The second subgroup is referred to as the Historic Inuit.

There is little archeological evidence of contact between the Dorset people and the Thule people. However, Inuit oral history identifies the Tuniit or Tunirjuat as the people who occupied Nunavut before their own ancestors, the Thule, arrived. The Tuniit were regarded as a peaceful and shy people distrustful of the new arrivals. Although there were intermarriages between the two groups, there were also fights, and the Tuniit removed themselves from areas occupied by the Thule. Sightings of the Tuniit became rarer and eventually they disappeared.

The Thule migrants brought a highly structured society with them based on the leadership of the whaleboat captain. With time, their dependence on bowheads decreased. They adapted to regional variations in resource availability and modified their social organization accordingly. Some moved into the interior of the Kivalliq Region, becoming largely dependent on caribou. Others lived on the coast, hunting mostly marine mammals.

The Neoeskimo lifestyle was forever altered by the arrival of European explorers, traders, and whalers. The Historic Inuit period began with the voyages of Martin Frobisher to Baffin Island in the 1570s. Sporadic contact after this time period had little impact on Inuit culture. Then, in the 1820s, Europeans and Americans began whaling in eastern Nunavut. This whaling depleted bowhead stocks, concentrated Inuit into areas around whalers, and introduced both devastating diseases and new materials to Inuit society. This is the beginning of the modern period, a time marked by many rapid changes in material culture, religion, and social organization.

Archeological Sites

Nunavut is rife with evidence of human occupation, although many of these structures are difficult to date. Some of the most common features are inuksuit (rock cairns). These had many functions. The one on the horizon may be a route marker between two camping spots. Another by the side of the lake indicates where to find fish. A lone, long rock marks a nearby food cache. A row of inuksuit was used for driving caribou towards a river crossing or towards a group of hiding hunters.

Look closely at that pile of rocks at your feet. Is there a black stain on the rocks? Is there lichen growing on them? Are animal bones visible? If so, then this pile of rocks may be an old cache where hunters stored food.

On high ground you may come across rock graves. The deceased's belongings were often placed on or nearby the grave. Resist the temptation to touch these objects. Please treat graves with special respect.

You may also notice small rock boxes, pullatit, that were used to trap foxes. The fox entered the trap to retrieve the bait and a rock or piece of ice dropped, blocking the entrance. Strange rock formations that look like stone igloos are ullisautit, tower fox traps. Bait was placed atop the trap and the fox would fall inside. Very large tower traps were even used for hunting polar bears.

Camp Sites

Camp sites are the places where people lived. By careful observation you can begin to determine both the time period and the season of occupation. In addition to the remains of homes, you may also see caches, outdoor fireplaces, box traps and inuksuit. Boys sat in rock outlines of qajait (kayaks) pretending to paddle and hunt. Girls built models of snowhouses and tents out of rocks to play house. There are many other interesting features to discover.

Both summer and winter Paleoeskimo camp sites consist of tent rings. The earliest Paleoeskimo dwellings were oval. Later Dorset dwellings vary in outline, but were frequently oval or rectangular. Oftentimes, all that remains of a Paleoeskimo dwelling are a few rocks, a small vegetated patch, or a slight depression along a beach ridge.

In contrast, Neoeskimo camp sites are more varied. Camps occupied in summer contain circular and oval tent rings. These are often bisected by a line of rocks separating the living area from the sleeping area.

Late fall/winter camps were often large. Today these sites are characterized by areas of lush vegetation and what appear at first to be large mounds. These mounds are actually semi-subterranean houses, constructed of whalebones, rocks and sod. Inside are sleeping platforms elevated for warmth. A layer of gravel, and then a mattress of heather, willow, or moss topped by heavy skins were placed on these platforms to provide insulation from both cold and rising damp. People slept on these beds in caribou-skin sleeping bags. Soapstone lamps provided heat and light. When occupied, these houses were roofed with a skin cover supported by whalebone rafters. Sometimes heather or willow was sandwiched between two skin covers as insulation. The roof was held in place with rocks, sod and snow.

In winter and early spring, many Thule and Historic Inuit lived in snowhouses. Most were built on the sea ice, but some were constructed on land, and these can sometimes be identified. Snowhouse dwellers often threw the remains of their meals and the burnt blubber from their lamps just outside the door. This detritus left a semicircle of bones and blubber-blackened ground — all that is left of the long since melted snowhouse.

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